Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic
Authors: Maurice Meisner, Maurice Meisner
Overview
My book, Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic, is a critical examination of the Chinese Communist revolution, from its origins in the mid-19th century to the post-Mao reform era. I trace the complex interplay of ideology, politics, economics, and culture that shaped this transformative period, offering a nuanced perspective that challenges conventional wisdom.
I begin by analyzing the impact of Western imperialism, the decline of traditional Confucianism, and the rise of a new intelligentsia, laying the groundwork for the emergence of revolutionary movements. I explore the failures of the 1920s revolutions and explain how these failures contributed to the rise of Maoism and the shift of revolutionary focus to the countryside.
I examine the establishment of the People’s Republic and the challenges of national unification, economic development, and social transformation. I then analyze the institutional and ideological legacy of the Yan’an era, emphasizing Mao’s strategies for mobilizing the peasantry and adapting Marxism to the Chinese context. My book discusses the successes and failures of the Maoist period, including land reform, collectivization, the Great Leap Forward, and the Cultural Revolution, highlighting their profound social, political, and economic consequences. It gives particular emphasis to how the utopian visions of Maoism ultimately clashed with the realities of governing a poor and backward nation.
My book offers a detailed account of the post-Mao reform era, focusing on Deng Xiaoping’s rise to power and his pragmatic approach to economic development. I analyze the market reforms that transformed China into a capitalist economy while maintaining a one-party state. I explore the suppression of the Democracy Movement and the persistence of authoritarianism. I also address the legacy of Mao and the reinterpretation of his thought in the post-Mao period. Moreover, my book considers how the economic successes of the reform era have generated new social inequalities and new political challenges.
My target audience is anyone interested in modern Chinese history, communism, revolution, and political economy. My book’s relevance stems from its focus on the complex and often contradictory nature of revolutionary change, offering lessons that can be applied to understanding historical and contemporary events elsewhere. My work challenges the conventional wisdom about Mao and his revolution by highlighting the reformist aspects of Maoism and Deng’s role as an economic modernizer. By exploring the interplay of ideology, politics, and economics, I provide insights into the challenges of development and the dilemmas of reconciling socialist aims with capitalist means. Moreover, my book examines the legacy of authoritarianism and the struggle for democracy in postrevolutionary societies, raising questions about the relationship between economic development and political liberalization.
Within the field of modern Chinese history, my book offers a critical reassessment of the Maoist era and the post-Mao reform era, emphasizing the continuity and change that shaped this transformative period. My approach emphasizes the agency of individuals and social classes while highlighting the historical forces that shape their choices. In the context of the current debates about China’s future, I offer a nuanced perspective that avoids simplistic explanations and easy answers.
Book Outline
1. Western Imperialism and the Weakness of Chinese Social Classes
This chapter examines how Western imperialism created the conditions for revolution in China by weakening existing social classes and introducing new ideas. It emphasizes the role of Western imperialism in disrupting the old Confucian order and giving rise to new revolutionary movements.
Key concept: Western imperialism played a central role in shaping modern Chinese history. It not only disrupted traditional social and economic structures but also introduced new Western ideas and ideologies that fueled revolutionary movements.
2. The Defection of the Intellectuals
This chapter discusses the crucial role of intellectuals in China’s revolutionary history. It focuses on how the intelligentsia, disillusioned with traditional values and institutions, became a driving force for change, adopting Western ideas and leading revolutionary movements.
Key concept: The defection of intellectuals, particularly the sons of the gentry, from traditional Confucian values and institutions was a crucial step in the development of modern Chinese revolutionary thought.
3. The Abortiveness of Bourgeois and Proletarian Revolution
This chapter analyzes the two revolutionary failures of the 1920s—the bourgeois-democratic revolution and the proletarian socialist revolution—and explains how these failures contributed to the rise of Maoism and the shift of revolutionary activity to the countryside.
Key concept: The failures of both the bourgeois-democratic revolution and the proletarian socialist revolution in the 1920s were key turning points. They led to the rise of Maoism and shifted the focus of the revolution from the cities to the countryside.
4. The Maoist Revolution and the Yan’an Legacy
This chapter discusses the development of Maoism during the revolutionary years, emphasizing the importance of military power, the mobilization of the peasantry, and the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context. It also covers the Yan’an legacy, including its institutional, ideological, and political aspects.
Key concept: Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.
5. The New State
This chapter examines the establishment of the new state after the Communist victory in 1949. It discusses the political and administrative structures of the new regime, the challenges of territorial unification, the role of repression and terror, and the initial economic policies.
Key concept: Our past work is only the first step in a long march of ten thousand li.
6. The Cities: The Rise and Fall of National Capitalism
This chapter analyzes the Communist policies in the cities in the early years of the People’s Republic. It focuses on the rise and fall of ‘national capitalism,’ urban economic policies, and the social and political consequences of industrialization.
Key concept: The capture of the cities is the final objective of the revolution, an objective that can not be achieved without adequate work in the cities.
7. Land Reform: The Bourgeois Revolution in the Countryside
This chapter discusses land reform in the countryside and its consequences. It explains how land reform, while carried out under Communist leadership, was a bourgeois revolution that created a class of individual peasant proprietors.
Key concept: Land reform completed a momentous social revolution in rural China, but not a socialist one. The gentry, the dominant elite for two millennia, ceased to exist as a social class.
8. The Social and Political Consequences of Industrialization
This chapter examines the social and political consequences of industrialization in China. It discusses how the Soviet model of development led to bureaucratization, inequality, and the fading of socialist values.
Key concept: Industrialization brings unforeseen and, for Mao, undesirable social, political, and ideological consequences.
9. Agricultural Collectivization, 1953–1957
This chapter discusses the process of agricultural collectivization in China from 1953 to 1957. It analyzes the reasons behind collectivization, its implementation, and its economic and social consequences.
Key concept: A socialist reorganization of agriculture can not be achieved without a powerful industrial base.
10. The Hundred Flowers: Socialism, Bureaucracy, and Freedom
This chapter examines the Hundred Flowers Campaign, a brief period of intellectual and political liberalization, and the subsequent antirightist campaign that suppressed dissent and reinforced Party control.
Key concept: Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend.
11. Permanent Revolution: The Ideological Origins of the Great Leap
This chapter discusses the ideological origins of the Great Leap Forward. It focuses on Mao’s concept of permanent revolution, the influence of voluntarism and populism, and the rejection of the Stalinist model of development.
Key concept: Correct thought is the essential prerequisite for effective revolutionary action.
12. Economics of the Great Leap Forward
This chapter analyzes the economic policies of the Great Leap Forward, including the focus on heavy industry, the mobilization of labor, and the attempt to achieve simultaneous development of industry and agriculture.
Key concept: Man is the decisive factor.
13. The People’s Communes and the “Transition to Communism”
This chapter discusses the establishment of the people’s communes and the “transition to communism,” emphasizing their utopian nature, organizational problems, and eventual failure. It also examines the impact of the withdrawal of Soviet aid.
Key concept: Revolutions come one after another. After a victory, we must put forward a new task.
14. The Bureaucratic Restoration
This chapter analyzes the Thermidorian Reaction, a period of retrenchment and bureaucratic restoration following the Great Leap Forward. It discusses the strengthening of Party and state bureaucracies and the shift in economic policies.
Key concept: New bourgeois elements are produced in socialist society.
15. The New Economic Policy, 1961–1965
This chapter examines the New Economic Policy (NEP) of 1961–1965, comparing it with Lenin’s NEP in the Soviet Union and highlighting its role in restoring economic stability through market mechanisms and material incentives.
Key concept: A ‘bourgeois-democratic’ phase of development must precede a socialist one.
16. The Socialist Education Movement, 1962-1965
This chapter analyzes the Socialist Education Movement of 1962–1965, discussing its aim to counter bureaucratization and revitalize socialist values, as well as the growing ideological and political conflict within the Party.
Key concept: A country like ours can still move toward its opposite.
17. The Concept of Cultural Revolution
This chapter discusses the concept of cultural revolution as understood by Mao and his followers, highlighting its historical roots in the May Fourth Movement and its distinctive Maoist interpretation. It emphasizes Mao’s belief in the power of ideas and consciousness.
Key concept: Correct and good things have often at first been looked upon not as fragrant flowers but as poisonous weeds.
18. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, 1966-1969
This chapter describes the events of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1969, including the rise of the Red Guards, the attack on Party and state authorities, the power seizures in Shanghai and elsewhere, and the suppression of the ultra-left.
Key concept: Persons like Khrushchev are still nesting beside us.
19. Social Results of the Cultural Revolution
This chapter examines the social consequences of the Cultural Revolution, including the persecution of intellectuals, the impact on the peasantry and the relationship between town and countryside, the role of the PLA, the rise of the Mao cult, and the struggle for succession.
Key concept: The Cultural Revolution yielded inhumanities in sufficient quantity for all groups and institutions involved to share some part of the blame.
20. The Aftermath of the Cultural Revolution and the Close of the Maoist Era, 1969-1976
This chapter examines the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution and the close of the Maoist era from 1969 to 1976. It covers the fall of Lin Biao, the return of Deng Xiaoping, the economic and political policies of the time, and the death of Mao.
Key concept: China was to be considered part of the Third World.
21. The Legacies of the Maoist Era
This chapter analyzes the legacies of the Maoist era, emphasizing the economic achievements of the period, the modernization of industry and agriculture, and the social and political contradictions that shaped post-Mao China.
Key concept: The Maoist regime made immense progress in bringing about China’s modern industrial transformation.
22. The Rise of Deng Xiaoping and the Critique of Maoism
This chapter discusses the rise of Deng Xiaoping and his critique of Maoism, focusing on the reassessment of Mao Zedong’s historical role and the political struggle between reformers and conservatives.
Key concept: Deng’s aim was not to condemn Mao to historical oblivion but rather to rescue Mao for history.
23. Market Reforms and the Development of Capitalism
This chapter examines Deng’s market reforms and the development of capitalism, focusing on the
Key concept: ‘Some must get rich first.’
24. The Struggle for Democracy
This chapter examines the struggle for democracy in post-Mao China and the suppression of the Democracy Movement. It also analyzes the rise of neo-authoritarianism and the ideological debates over the role of the market.
Key concept: No bourgeoisie, no democracy.
25. The End of the Reign of Deng Xiaoping: China in the 1990s
This chapter discusses the final years of Deng Xiaoping’s reign and China in the 1990s, focusing on economic growth, social inequality, political repression, the re-emergence of nationalism, the recovery of Hong Kong, and the question of Taiwan.
Key concept: Low-speed development is equal to stagnation or even regression.
Essential Questions
1. How did Western imperialism shape the conditions for revolution in China?
Western imperialism’s impact was multifaceted. Economically, it created enclaves of modern industry and trade, disrupting traditional economic structures. Socially, it led to the rise of a new comprador class linked to foreign interests. Politically, it weakened the Qing dynasty and contributed to warlordism. Culturally, it introduced new Western ideas that challenged traditional values. These factors combined to create a volatile environment ripe for revolution.
2. What factors led to the intelligentsia’s rejection of traditional values and institutions?
The intelligentsia’s defection from Confucianism was fueled by a combination of factors: disillusionment with the old order’s inability to address China’s problems, exposure to Western ideas of science, democracy, and nationalism, and a growing sense of national crisis. This defection marked a shift from traditional intellectual pursuits to a focus on social and political change, with intellectuals becoming leaders of revolutionary movements.
3. What were the factors that contributed to the rise of Mao Zedong and Maoism?
Mao’s rise was facilitated by several factors: his understanding of the peasantry, his ability to mobilize rural populations, the failure of earlier revolutionary movements to achieve lasting change, and the CCP’s organizational strength in the countryside. Maoism adapted Marxism to the Chinese context by emphasizing the peasantry’s revolutionary potential and the importance of guerrilla warfare.
4. What were the key components of the Yan’an legacy and how did they shape the post-1949 period?
The Yan’an legacy included institutional innovations like the mass line, decentralized political structures, and a focus on self-sufficiency; ideological orientations such as voluntarism, populism, and an emphasis on class struggle; and political practices like mass mobilization and thought reform. These elements shaped the CCP’s approach to governing after 1949, influencing policies on economic development, social transformation, and political control.
5. What were the aims and consequences of Deng Xiaoping’s market reforms?
The post-Mao reforms under Deng Xiaoping aimed to modernize China’s economy by introducing market mechanisms and opening up to foreign trade and investment. These reforms resulted in rapid economic growth but also generated social inequalities, corruption, and political repression, posing fundamental challenges to the socialist vision that had animated the revolution.
1. How did Western imperialism shape the conditions for revolution in China?
Western imperialism’s impact was multifaceted. Economically, it created enclaves of modern industry and trade, disrupting traditional economic structures. Socially, it led to the rise of a new comprador class linked to foreign interests. Politically, it weakened the Qing dynasty and contributed to warlordism. Culturally, it introduced new Western ideas that challenged traditional values. These factors combined to create a volatile environment ripe for revolution.
2. What factors led to the intelligentsia’s rejection of traditional values and institutions?
The intelligentsia’s defection from Confucianism was fueled by a combination of factors: disillusionment with the old order’s inability to address China’s problems, exposure to Western ideas of science, democracy, and nationalism, and a growing sense of national crisis. This defection marked a shift from traditional intellectual pursuits to a focus on social and political change, with intellectuals becoming leaders of revolutionary movements.
3. What were the factors that contributed to the rise of Mao Zedong and Maoism?
Mao’s rise was facilitated by several factors: his understanding of the peasantry, his ability to mobilize rural populations, the failure of earlier revolutionary movements to achieve lasting change, and the CCP’s organizational strength in the countryside. Maoism adapted Marxism to the Chinese context by emphasizing the peasantry’s revolutionary potential and the importance of guerrilla warfare.
4. What were the key components of the Yan’an legacy and how did they shape the post-1949 period?
The Yan’an legacy included institutional innovations like the mass line, decentralized political structures, and a focus on self-sufficiency; ideological orientations such as voluntarism, populism, and an emphasis on class struggle; and political practices like mass mobilization and thought reform. These elements shaped the CCP’s approach to governing after 1949, influencing policies on economic development, social transformation, and political control.
5. What were the aims and consequences of Deng Xiaoping’s market reforms?
The post-Mao reforms under Deng Xiaoping aimed to modernize China’s economy by introducing market mechanisms and opening up to foreign trade and investment. These reforms resulted in rapid economic growth but also generated social inequalities, corruption, and political repression, posing fundamental challenges to the socialist vision that had animated the revolution.
Key Takeaways
1. Modernization and its Unintended Consequences
The Chinese experience demonstrates how the unintended consequences of technological advancement, like rapid industrialization and the shift to a market economy, can create or exacerbate social and political problems. The pursuit of modernization, even under socialist ideals, can lead to unexpected outcomes like increased inequality, bureaucratic dominance, and a fading of revolutionary spirit. This emphasizes the need for careful consideration of the social and political context when implementing new technologies.
Practical Application:
In contemporary discourse on AI ethics and governance, understanding the historical context of how technologies can be used by states to control populations, and how these technologies intersect with existing power structures, is essential for developing responsible AI policies. Recognizing the potential for AI to exacerbate social inequalities, as industrialization did in China, is key to mitigating risks.
2. The Disconnect Between Leaders and the Led
The disconnect between the Communist Party and the masses it claimed to represent was a recurring theme throughout the Maoist era. The Party’s focus on ideological purity and its suppression of dissent ultimately alienated many intellectuals, workers, and peasants, hindering the realization of socialist goals. This highlights the importance of understanding and responding to the needs and aspirations of all stakeholders, not just a select few.
Practical Application:
In product design and development, incorporating diverse perspectives and engaging end-users in the design process through user research and usability testing can help prevent the development of products that cater only to elite groups and address the real needs and preferences of all users.
3. The Primacy of Politics over Science and Technology
The book highlights how political and ideological considerations often trumped pragmatic and scientific concerns in decision-making during the Mao era. This is evident in the Lysenko affair, the Great Leap Forward, and the Cultural Revolution, which all prioritized ideological purity over practical results. This emphasizes the potential dangers of prioritizing political agendas over evidence-based decision-making in science and technology.
Practical Application:
In AI safety research, understanding how political agendas can influence scientific and technological development, including potentially beneficial applications of AI, is critical for promoting responsible innovation and preventing the misuse of powerful technologies.
4. The Evolving Dynamics of Worker-Manager Relations
The shifting dynamics of worker-manager relations in Chinese factories, from early attempts at worker control to the imposition of Soviet-style one-man management, and then to later experiments in worker participation, highlight the challenges of balancing economic efficiency with worker empowerment. The evolving policies on trade unions, wage differentials, and labor discipline illustrate the complex interplay of economic, social, and political factors in shaping workplace relations.
Practical Application:
In managing technical teams, understanding the historical context of worker-manager relations in different political and economic systems can inform strategies for promoting employee engagement, empowerment, and skill development. The challenges of worker-manager relations in China’s transition from planned to a market economy can offer valuable lessons in this regard.
1. Modernization and its Unintended Consequences
The Chinese experience demonstrates how the unintended consequences of technological advancement, like rapid industrialization and the shift to a market economy, can create or exacerbate social and political problems. The pursuit of modernization, even under socialist ideals, can lead to unexpected outcomes like increased inequality, bureaucratic dominance, and a fading of revolutionary spirit. This emphasizes the need for careful consideration of the social and political context when implementing new technologies.
Practical Application:
In contemporary discourse on AI ethics and governance, understanding the historical context of how technologies can be used by states to control populations, and how these technologies intersect with existing power structures, is essential for developing responsible AI policies. Recognizing the potential for AI to exacerbate social inequalities, as industrialization did in China, is key to mitigating risks.
2. The Disconnect Between Leaders and the Led
The disconnect between the Communist Party and the masses it claimed to represent was a recurring theme throughout the Maoist era. The Party’s focus on ideological purity and its suppression of dissent ultimately alienated many intellectuals, workers, and peasants, hindering the realization of socialist goals. This highlights the importance of understanding and responding to the needs and aspirations of all stakeholders, not just a select few.
Practical Application:
In product design and development, incorporating diverse perspectives and engaging end-users in the design process through user research and usability testing can help prevent the development of products that cater only to elite groups and address the real needs and preferences of all users.
3. The Primacy of Politics over Science and Technology
The book highlights how political and ideological considerations often trumped pragmatic and scientific concerns in decision-making during the Mao era. This is evident in the Lysenko affair, the Great Leap Forward, and the Cultural Revolution, which all prioritized ideological purity over practical results. This emphasizes the potential dangers of prioritizing political agendas over evidence-based decision-making in science and technology.
Practical Application:
In AI safety research, understanding how political agendas can influence scientific and technological development, including potentially beneficial applications of AI, is critical for promoting responsible innovation and preventing the misuse of powerful technologies.
4. The Evolving Dynamics of Worker-Manager Relations
The shifting dynamics of worker-manager relations in Chinese factories, from early attempts at worker control to the imposition of Soviet-style one-man management, and then to later experiments in worker participation, highlight the challenges of balancing economic efficiency with worker empowerment. The evolving policies on trade unions, wage differentials, and labor discipline illustrate the complex interplay of economic, social, and political factors in shaping workplace relations.
Practical Application:
In managing technical teams, understanding the historical context of worker-manager relations in different political and economic systems can inform strategies for promoting employee engagement, empowerment, and skill development. The challenges of worker-manager relations in China’s transition from planned to a market economy can offer valuable lessons in this regard.
Suggested Deep Dive
Chapter: Chapter 4: The Maoist Revolution and the Yan’an Legacy
This chapter offers crucial insights into the evolution of Mao’s thought and the development of his unique approach to revolution, providing a deeper understanding of the ideological foundations of the Mao era.
Memorable Quotes
Chapter 1. 3
Reflected in the borrowing of Western ideologies to serve Chinese revolutionary ends is the central role of Western imperialism in molding the history of modern China.
Chapter 1. 12
Yet ideas and ideologies alone do not create revolutionary situations, much less revolutions.
Chapter 3. 36
The Communists learned bitter lessons from their crushing defeat, and the lessons were to guide their revolutionary strategy in the years that followed.
Chapter 4. 43
People must be able to hope before they can act; they must possess not only ideals and a sense of mission, but hope and confidence that they will be able to realize their ideals through their own actions.
Chapter 17. 291
Mao Zedong’s last revolutionary act was to turn into the greatest tragedy of his long revolutionary career—and one with dire consequences for the Chinese people.
Chapter 1. 3
Reflected in the borrowing of Western ideologies to serve Chinese revolutionary ends is the central role of Western imperialism in molding the history of modern China.
Chapter 1. 12
Yet ideas and ideologies alone do not create revolutionary situations, much less revolutions.
Chapter 3. 36
The Communists learned bitter lessons from their crushing defeat, and the lessons were to guide their revolutionary strategy in the years that followed.
Chapter 4. 43
People must be able to hope before they can act; they must possess not only ideals and a sense of mission, but hope and confidence that they will be able to realize their ideals through their own actions.
Chapter 17. 291
Mao Zedong’s last revolutionary act was to turn into the greatest tragedy of his long revolutionary career—and one with dire consequences for the Chinese people.
Comparative Analysis
My work stands in contrast to celebratory or overly critical accounts of the Maoist era and offers a fresh perspective by highlighting its complexities and contradictions. Unlike celebratory accounts, I do not shy away from discussing the human costs of Mao’s policies, such as the Great Leap Forward famine and the violence of the Cultural Revolution. In contrast to overly critical narratives, I acknowledge the significant material progress achieved during the Mao era, especially in industrialization and the improvement of living standards. I also challenge the notion that Deng Xiaoping simply abandoned Maoism, highlighting the continuities between the Mao and Deng periods, particularly in the use of authoritarian political methods and the emphasis on nationalism.
My work engages with and departs from other scholars in the field. I draw upon the work of scholars like Franz Schurmann, who analyzed the structure and organization of the Chinese Communist Party, and scholars like Vivienne Shue, who studied the dynamics of rural development toward socialism. While I incorporate their insights, my analysis also challenges some of their conclusions. For example, I disagree with those who see the Cultural Revolution as a purely ideological movement, emphasizing instead the interplay of power interests and political maneuvering. I also challenge the conventional wisdom about Mao’s anti-bureaucratism, highlighting his pragmatic use of bureaucracy for political and economic ends. Unlike those who view Deng as simply a capitalist reformer, I emphasize the continuity of authoritarianism in the post-Mao era and the persistence of socialist rhetoric.
Reflection
My book’s significance lies in its nuanced and critical assessment of a transformative period in modern Chinese history. By exploring the complex interplay of ideology, politics, economics, and culture, I provide a fresh perspective that challenges conventional wisdom and offers valuable lessons for understanding revolutionary movements elsewhere. My book is more relevant today than at the time of its publication, as the People’s Republic of China has more definitively taken a capitalist, rather than a socialist, course since then. This makes questionable the earlier socialist interpretations of the Mao era and forces a reconsideration of the relationship between economic modernization and social and political transformation. One area where my interpretation has not stood the test of time is my earlier assessment of the role of the state in promoting capitalism. I mistakenly viewed the state as a potential barrier to capitalism, when in fact it has proved to be its principal promoter. While my analysis primarily focuses on the Maoist period and the Deng era, I also raise important questions about the challenges and dilemmas confronting post-Mao China, particularly the issues of social inequality, corruption, and the struggle for democracy. These challenges remain central to understanding China’s present and future trajectory.
Flashcards
Who was Hong Xiuquan?
A self-proclaimed disciple of the Christian God and, as he believed, the younger brother of Jesus Christ.
What period encompassed the two revolutionary failures analyzed in Chapter 3?
The period from 1921, when the Chinese Communist Party was founded, to 1927, when Chiang Kai-shek launched a counterrevolution.
Where was Jinggangshan?
A remote mountain region and old bandit hideout bordering the provinces of Hunan and Jiangxi.
What is a key Maoist maxim mentioned in the text?
Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.
What was the economic goal announced by the Communists in 1949?
Three years of recovery, then ten years of development.
What information was hastily added to the manuscript of Mao’s China before publication?
The fact of Mao’s passing, and the passing of Maoism and the era of peasant revolution.
In 1950, in place of outright land seizures, what policy was adopted regarding land ownership?
A policy of reductions in rents and interest rates, partly to appease landlords and wealthy peasants but also as a gesture of cooperation with the Guomindang.
What requirement of the Yan’an years symbolically challenged the social stratification between mental and manual labor?
The requirement for officials and intellectuals to participate in productive activities on a regular basis.
Who was Hong Xiuquan?
A self-proclaimed disciple of the Christian God and, as he believed, the younger brother of Jesus Christ.
What period encompassed the two revolutionary failures analyzed in Chapter 3?
The period from 1921, when the Chinese Communist Party was founded, to 1927, when Chiang Kai-shek launched a counterrevolution.
Where was Jinggangshan?
A remote mountain region and old bandit hideout bordering the provinces of Hunan and Jiangxi.
What is a key Maoist maxim mentioned in the text?
Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.
What was the economic goal announced by the Communists in 1949?
Three years of recovery, then ten years of development.
What information was hastily added to the manuscript of Mao’s China before publication?
The fact of Mao’s passing, and the passing of Maoism and the era of peasant revolution.
In 1950, in place of outright land seizures, what policy was adopted regarding land ownership?
A policy of reductions in rents and interest rates, partly to appease landlords and wealthy peasants but also as a gesture of cooperation with the Guomindang.
What requirement of the Yan’an years symbolically challenged the social stratification between mental and manual labor?
The requirement for officials and intellectuals to participate in productive activities on a regular basis.